From ancient officials to modern tech workers: The long history behind China’s '996' work culture

Complaints about excessive labour appear repeatedly throughout Chinese historical records.

In contemporary China, the so-called “996” work schedule — referring to employees working from 9am to 9pm, six days a week — has become a major topic of public discussion.

Supporters of the system argue that such demanding routines can accelerate productivity and career success. Critics, however, have condemned the model as exploitative, with some describing it as “modern slavery” and linking excessive hours to cases of illness and death among workers.

The issue first gained widespread attention in 2019, when a group of anonymous activists used the global software development platform GitHub to organise an online protest highlighting the impact of long working hours on employees in China’s technology industry. The campaign argued that the practice posed serious risks to workers’ healthand well-being.

The schedule also conflicts with existing labour regulations in China, which legally restrict working hours to eight hours per day and 44 hours per week.

Yet historians note that long working hours are not a new phenomenon in Chinese society. Accounts from historical records suggest that intense work routines have existed for centuries, affecting both officials and ordinary labourers long before the rise of modern technology companies, a report in the South China Morning Post stated.

Early records of relentless work:

Historical sources indicate that demanding workloads were common even in ancient China.

During the Warring States period, an official named Dong He reportedly worked continuously day and night while negotiating with a rival state. The account is often cited as one of the earliest descriptions of extended working hours.

By the time of the Qin dynasty, officials were already beginning their duties very early in the day. Poor transport conditions meant many had to leave their homes at around 4am or 5am to reach their workplaces, often remaining on duty until evening.

Working patterns were similarly demanding among other sections of society. Farmers typically laboured from sunrise until sunset, while merchants were known to sleep for fewer than four hours a night as they managed their businesses.

Morning attendance was treated with strict discipline. Being present at official gatherings at dawn was considered essential, reflecting a rigid culture of punctuality and duty.

Strict discipline in imperial administration:

Records from later dynasties reveal harsh consequences for those who failed to meet expectations.

During the Tang dynasty, government officials who missed a single day of work could face 20 lashes as punishment. Accumulating 35 days of absence could lead to a sentence of one year of forced labour. Even arriving late was punishable by corporal punishment.

Stories from the Ming dynasty illustrate the extreme pressure some officials felt. One account describes a civil servant rushing anxiously through the palace grounds in fear of being late, only to slip and drown in a nearby river.

In addition to their regular administrative responsibilities, officials were often required to work night shifts, sacrificing personal time and family life.

The Tang government introduced a rotating night-duty system, which required certain officials to serve three or four overnight shifts within a ten-day period. These shifts involved processing routine documents and responding to urgent matters that arose after normal working hours.

Although there was no overtime compensation, diligence could sometimes bring recognition from the emperor.

During the Eastern Han dynasty, an official named Huang Xiang reportedly took on the responsibilities of colleagues who were absent. When the emperor discovered him working outside his assigned hours, he was impressed by the dedication and rewarded him with a promotion.

Emperors known for extreme workloads:

Historical accounts suggest that rulers themselves often maintained demanding work routines.

The founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, is said to have reviewed 1,660 official memorials in eight days, while requiring his ministers to handle more than 200 documents daily.

Another example is Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty. Historical records describe him as an exceptionally industrious ruler who reportedly slept only four hours per night and wrote over 10 million words during his reign.

Despite his workload, he granted himself only three holidays each year: the Spring Festival, the winter solstice, and his own birthday.

The emperor was known to spend evenings reading and handling state matters rather than attending leisure activities such as imperial hunts or summer retreats. Accounts also suggest he kept 35 pairs of spectacles in different parts of the palace so that he could easily continue reading and writing.

Periods that offered greater rest:

Even with these demanding expectations, some historical periods attempted to incorporate regular breaks.

During the Han dynasty, authorities introduced a system known as the “rest and bath day”, allowing officials one day of leave every five days.

Later, during the Song dynasty and the Tang dynasty — periods often associated with economic prosperity — workers were given somewhat more time to rest.

Officials in the Tang period were permitted one day of rest every ten days, with additional leave granted during festivals or for visits to elderly parents. Marriage leave during this era could extend to as long as nine months.

In the Song dynasty, records suggest officials could enjoy up to 98 days of rest per year, indicating a comparatively more balanced approach to work and leisure.

Voices of fatigue across history:

Complaints about excessive labour appear repeatedly throughout Chinese historical records.

Around 1,800 years ago, labourers carved their grievances into stone bricks, including messages such as “I am too tired” and “no overtime pay.” These bricks are now preserved in a museum in Anhui, where they continue to resonate with modern visitors.

Writers and artists also documented the burden of official duties.

The Tang dynasty poet Bai Juyi described his long working days in verse, recounting early departures and late returns from government service. In his writing, he questioned the demands of official life, asking: “When will I be able to leave office and regain my freedom?”

Similarly, the Ming dynasty painter and scholar Wen Zhengming wrote about the exhaustion he felt while performing night duties even in old age. In one poem, he described himself as “weary in spirit, like someone ill.”

A continuing tension between work and rest:

Across centuries of Chinese history, the challenge of balancing labour and personal life has remained a persistent theme.

Traditional Confucianism emphasised diligence as a moral virtue, often warning that laziness would lead to failure. Such cultural values contributed to a longstanding respect for hard work.